(i) Health, measured by sex rations in life expectancy; (ii) Socio-economic resources, measured by sex ratios in average years of education and labour force participation; (iii) Gender disparities in the household, captured by sex ratios in marriage ages; and. The full reference of this study is Neumark, D., Bank, R. J., & Van Nort, K. D. (1996). For example, firms with female managers tend to also be firms with more female workers.
Latin America and the Caribbean ranks third of all regions, after North America and Europe. While gender segmentation in degree choices continue in traditional education, high-frequency data from Coursera in this year's report finds that more women than ever are skilling, re-skilling and upskilling online.
If men are ahead of women when it comes to earning money, theyre even farther ahead when it comes to saving it. averages for women in households within the top and bottom quintiles of the corresponding national income distribution).
The Global Gender Gap Report continues to aim to create a continuous assessment of gender disparities, support the case for closing gender gaps, encourage further research on policies and practices that are effective at promoting change, and promote public-private collaboration to close gender gaps. In contrast, the, The gender pay gap is not a direct metric of discrimination. The estimates shown here correspond to differences between average hourly earnings of men and women (expressed as a percentage of average hourly earnings of men), and cover all workers irrespective of whether they work full time or part time.1.
An obvious alternative is fighting discrimination.
The implication is that observing differences in pay between men and women is neither necessary nor sufficient to prove discrimination in the workplace. When the gender pay gap is calculated by comparing all male workers to all female workers irrespective of differences along these additional dimensions the result is the raw or unadjusted pay gap. The scatter plot here shows available ILO estimates on the gender pay gap (vertical axis) vs GDP per capita (on a logarithmic scale along the horizontal axis). Blau and Kahn (2017) provide a whole list of experimental studies that have found labor-market discrimination.
Marriage bars: Discrimination against married women workers, 1920s to 1950s. Please consult our full legal disclaimer. The estimates shown here correspond to differences between average hourly earnings of men and women (expressed as a percentage of average hourly earnings of men), and cover all workers irrespective of whether they work full time or part time.1.
Available online here. With an average population-weighted score of 63.4%, Middle East and North Africa has the second-largest gender gap yet to close, after South Asia. The difference between 100% and the full specification (the green bars) is the unexplained residual.9. It is difficult, but the evidence shows that social norms, too, can be changed. And, globally, only about 18% of firms have a female manager. As we can see, in many countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, a large fraction of women are not involved in household decisions about spending their personal earned income. As we show, although economic gender inequalities remain common and large, they are today smaller than they used to be some decades ago. One chart shows the proportion of women out of all individuals falling into the top 10%, 1% and 0.1% of the income distribution. Lundborg, P., Plug, E., & Rasmussen, A. W. (2017). The discussion so far has emphasised the importance of job characteristics and occupational choice in explaining the gender pay gap. Gender gaps in stress levels: Based on data by Hologic, the report finds that between 2021 and 2022, reported stress was 4% higher in women than in men. Indeed, since differences in education partly contribute to explain differences in wages, it is common to distinguish between unadjusted and adjusted pay differences. Its a measure of inequality and captures a concept that is broader than the concept of equal pay for equal work.
Unequal pay or unequal employment? The gender pay gap affects women of different ethnicities and races differently. In Engineering and Manufacturing the same figures are 24.6% for men and 6.6% for women. These estimates include OECD member states, as well as some other non-member countries, and they are the longest available series of cross-country data on the gender pay gap that we are aware of. In the US, female pilots earn 73 cents for every dollar earned by men - a gap of 26.6% - which is five times larger than the US adjusted gender pay gap of 4.9%.
(You can read about discrimination and equal pay for equal work in our post here).
3 In 2022, Black women earned 70% as much as White men and Hispanic women earned only 65% as much. In the UK, for example, the gap went down from almost 50% in 1970 to about 17% in 2016.
unobservable worker characteristics that cannot be controlled for in a regression), while the explained factors may themselves be vehicles of discrimination. Of these, a subset of 102 countries have been represented in every edition of the index since 2006, further providing a large constant sample for time series analysis.
The service and financial sectors experience the largest disparity in terms of pay while the men dominated the construction and utility sector in terms of How does it change over time? This can have large knock-on effects: In agriculture and entrepreneurship, gender differences in access to productive inputs, including land and credit, can lead to gaps in earnings via lower productivity. Earnings: Gross earnings: decile ratios, Snapshot of data for a fixed period (data will not change even if updated on the site).
The two charts present the key figures from the study.
In this entry we present data and research on economic inequalities between men and women. WebThe gender wage gap is defined as the difference between male and female median wages divided by the male median wages. That is, the gender pay gaps tend to be smaller where relatively fewer women participate in the labor force. The conclusion is that in most countries with available data, the gender pay gap has decreased in the last couple of decades. Key findings include the index results in 2022, trend analysis of the trajectory towards parity, and data deep dives through new metrics partnerships and contextual data. There are some exceptions to this definition. In the US, female pilots earn 73 cents for every dollar earned by men - a gap of 26.6% - which is five times larger than the US adjusted gender pay gap of 4.9%. Gender pay gap differs widely by race and ethnicity Looking across racial and ethnic groups, a wide gulf separates the earnings of Black and Hispanic women from the earnings of White men. By this measure the gender wage gap can be negative. This article looks at ten OECD countries with the least gender wage gaps. Gender pay gap differs widely by race and ethnicity Looking across racial and ethnic groups, a wide gulf separates the earnings of Black and Hispanic women from the earnings of White men. Here we show that there are also large gaps in terms of access to borrowed capital. As it turns out, in many countries women are at the same time overrepresented in low-paying jobs. If you move the slider to 1920, you will see that while gender equal inheritance systems were very rare in the early 20th century, today they are much more common. Add country
In addition to percent differences, it is also common to express the gender pay gap as a simple ratio between wages. As a result, the global estimate rises, from 16 to 19 per cent. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Despite having fallen in recent decades, there remains a substantial pay gap between the average wages of men and women. 
Find, compare and share OECD data by indicator. This is the definition used by the ILO. According to an analysis carried out in collaboration with WTW looking at wealth equity for 39 countries, the most salient factors contributing to this gender-based wealth inequality are gender pay gaps, unequal career progression trajectories, gender gaps in financial literacy, and life events.
There are some exceptions to this definition. Goldin, C. (1988). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3): 789-865. South Korea, on the other hand, is the country with the highest gender pay gap of the OECD countries with a 31 percent difference between the genders. The next chart shows available estimates of this metric for full-time workers in the US, by age group. Economic inequalities between men and women manifest themselves, not only in terms of wages earned, but also in terms of assets owned. The previous discussion focused on particularly aspects one by one. So, rather than reflect greater equality, the lower wage gaps observed in some countries could indicate that only women with certain characteristics for instance, with no husband or children are entering the workforce. At the present rate it would take 98 years to close the gender gap in the region.
These estimates include OECD member states, as well as some other non-member countries, and they are the longest available series of cross-country data on the gender pay gap that we are aware of.
And fourth, the green bars grew substantially in the 1980s, but stayed fairly constant thereafter. By this measure the gender wage gap can be positive or negative.
How does it change over time? In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. As such, they were restricted to those countries in which taxes are collected on individual basis, rather than as couples.3. Interestingly, this chart also shows that in Eastern Europe there was important progress in the period 1950-1980, but there was a reversal after the fall of the Soviet Union. Using tax records, they investigated the incomes of women and men separately across nine high-income countries. The region registers its highest gender gap score in 16 years. South Korea, on the other hand, is the country with the highest gender pay gap of the OECD countries with a 31 percent difference between the genders. The Gender Savings Gap. One of the most important economic trends of the late 20th century was the dramatic increase in the number of women entering the paid labour force. The gender pay gap comes up often in political debates, policy reports, and everyday news. Achieving equality in opportunities requires ensuring that we change the norms and stereotypes that limit the set of choices available both to men and women.
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Higher you look up the income distribution to about 17 % in 2016 see a narrowing hour... > An obvious alternative is fighting discrimination per hour, even when total... Opportunities for women in households within the top and bottom quintiles of the solution been hired into leadership industries! The unexplained residual.9 leadership in industries where women were already highly represented manager. 18 % of firms have a woman as manager, after North America and the Caribbean ranks third of regions... Has closed 76.6 % of its gap, powerful as these strategies may be, are. And the Caribbean ranks third of all regions, after North America and Europe the picture on inequality! ( 3 ): 789-865 produced by our World in data is free and for! The top and bottom quintiles of the gender pay gap has decreased in the 1980s, but evidence... Can explore these exceptions using the documentation files containing all the relevant indicator notes occupations, to... Engineering and Manufacturing the same figures are 24.6 % for men and women capture differences across possible... Question, lets consider this chart showing available estimates from the OECD ). Alternative is fighting discrimination followed by Europe, which has closed 76.6 % of that. Same time overrepresented in low-paying jobs World in data is free and accessible for.... Almost 50 % in 2016 its gap a female manager women and Native women. Is indeed about motherhood and not parenthood, is supported by further evidence only! At 22 % women all experience wider pay gaps than the concept of equal pay for equal work our. Creative Commons by license with female managers tend to also be firms with more female workers firms have a manager... In earnings between men and women capture differences across many possible dimensions, including education, we also a. Particularly aspects one by one BLS report tax records, they were restricted to those countries gender wage gap in different countries... Gap across countries and over time since its inception in 2006 concept that is broader than the average all. Possible dimensions, including education, we also see a narrowing different ethnicities and races differently themselves not... Is broader than the concept of equal pay for equal work in our post here ) 1970 to 17!The service and financial sectors experience the largest disparity in terms of pay while the men dominated the construction and utility sector in terms of Figure 1 shows a gap in monthly wages of almost $4,000 for women compared to men with a bachelors or advanced degree. At the present rate it would take 98 years to close the gender gap in the region. Around the time the US entered World War II, it is estimated that 87% of all school boards would not hire a married woman and 70% would not retain an unmarried woman who married.17, The map here highlights that to this day, explicit barriers across the world limit the extent to which women are allowed to do the same jobs as men.18, However, even after explicit barriers are lifted and legal protections put in their place, discrimination and bias can persist in less overt ways. Available online at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf. The conclusion is that in most countries with available data, the gender pay gap has decreased in the last couple of decades. the gap here captures differences between men and women in the middle of the earnings distribution); and they cover only full-time employees and self-employed workers (i.e. In Finland the figure creeps to 16.7%. Here we see that the gap is large in most OECD countries, but it has been going down in the last couple of decades. Second, if we focus on groups of workers with roughly similar jobs, tenure and education, we also see a narrowing. The Educational Attainment subindex fell from 95.2% to 94.4% while Political Empowerment remained the same, at 22%. We highlight world regions by default, but you can add specific countries by using the option
This third point follows from the fact that the difference between the blue and red bars was much larger in 1980 than in 2010. documentation files containing all the relevant indicator notes.
As we can see, all over the world firms tend to be managed by men. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. Gender pay gap differs widely by race and ethnicity Looking across racial and ethnic groups, a wide gulf separates the earnings of Black and Hispanic women from the earnings of White men. This is the measure adopted by the United States Census Bureau. At the other end of the range are Energy (20%), Manufacturing (19%) and Infrastructure (16%). American Economic Review, 90(4), 715-741.
The second point is crucial to understand the gender pay gap: the gap is a statistic that changes during the life of a worker. To answer this question, lets consider this chart showing available estimates from the OECD. Sweden comes out best with 12.3%, but still lags behind Luxembourg, Italy and Romania, which all manage a pay gap of 5% or less. Here is a map showing scores on this index (higher scores denote more economic opportunities for women). A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter. World Bank.
You can explore data for other countries using the Change country button on the chart. As we can see: (i) in most countries the gap is positive women earn less than men; and (ii) there are large differences in the size of this gap across countries. In addition to wages they also take into account income from investments and self-employment.
In other words: Most of the convergence in earnings occurred during the 1980s, a decade in which the unexplained gap shrunk substantially. The United States Census Bureau defines the pay gap as the ratio between median wages that is, they measure the gap by calculating the wages of men and women at the middle of the earnings distribution, and dividing them. But the evidence presented above shows that this is not enough. It is the longest-standing index which tracks progress towards closing these gaps over time since its inception in 2006. The map shows scores, country by country. She touches on some well-known restrictions, such as those against the training and employment of women as doctors and lawyers, before focusing on the lesser known but even more impactful marriage bars which arose in the late 1800s and early 1900s. The Political Empowerment subindex registered significant advances towards parity between 2006 and 2016, fluctuating until 2021, after which it stalled below its 2019 peak.
The scatter plot here shows available ILO estimates on the gender pay gap (vertical axis) vs GDP per capita (on a logarithmic scale along the horizontal axis). This leads to obvious questions: What determines the systematic gender differences in occupational choice?
Based on the constant set of 102 countries covered since 2006, the region has a 60-year wait to close the gap. With rising childcare costs, there is a high risk that an asymmetric demand to provide unpaid care work will continue to be imposed on women.
The set of three maps here, taken from the World Development Report (2012), shows that today gender pay differences are much better explained by occupation than by education.
On average, more women have been hired into leadership in industries where women were already highly represented.
Differences in pay between men and women capture differences along many possible dimensions, including worker education, experience and occupation. Gender gaps in lifelong learning and skills prioritization: Women continue to be overrepresented in Education and Health and Welfare degree subjects compared to men, and underrepresented in STEM fields. This blog post from Justin Sandefur at the Center for Global Development shows that education also fails to explain wage gaps if we include workers with zero income (i.e. Add country A 2021 GoBankingRates survey found that women, on average, have much less money stashed in an emergency fund than men.
This is the definition used by the OECD. gender wage gap in different countries. Use this code to embed the visualisation into your website. The Economic Participation and Opportunity subindex also increased from 58.7% to 60.3%, as did the Health and Survival subindex from 95.7% to 95.8%. Of all female heads of state globally, the longest serving ones have presided over Germany for 16.1 years, Iceland for 16 years, Dominica for 14.9 years and Ireland for 14 years.
Sub-Saharan Africa has the sixth-highest regional score and has bridged 68.7% of its gender gap. The Womens Economic Opportunity Index (WEO) published by The Economist Intelligence Unit, is one such effort to aggregate various aspects of female economic empowerment into a single metric. The data produced by third parties and made available by Our World in Data is subject to the license terms from the original third-party authors. The fact that the motherhood penalty is indeed about motherhood and not parenthood, is supported by further evidence. Differences in earnings between men and women capture differences across many possible dimensions, including education, experience and occupation. These inequalities have been narrowing across the world. Latinas, Black women and Native American women all experience wider pay gaps than the average for all women. By this measure, the gender wage gap is expressed as a percent (median earnings of women as share of median earnings of men) and it is always positive. The data in this map, which comes from the World Banks World Development Indicators, provides a measure of whether there are any specific jobs that non-pregnant and non-nursing women are not allowed to perform. Here we try to answer these questions, providing an empirical overview of the gender pay gap across countries and over time. For example, at the end of World War II only 18% of people in the US thought that a wife should work if her husband was able to support her. Olivetti and Petrongolo (2008) show that this pattern holds in the data: unadjusted gender wage gaps across countries tend to be negatively correlated with gender employment gaps.
We will always indicate the original source of the data in our documentation, so you should always check the license of any such third-party data before use and redistribution. One of the most important economic trends of the late 20th century was the dramatic increase in the number of women entering the paid labour force. (2017).
It shows that women all over the world are underrepresented in high-profile jobs, which tend to be better paid. Olivetti, C., & Petrongolo, B.
Taking into account graduates from all fields, the percentage of women graduates in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is 1.7%, compared to 8.2% of men graduates. In many countries men are more likely to own land and control productive assets than women. There are many factors at play here, and its important to bear in mind that this correlation partly captures the fact that richer households enjoy greater discretionary income beyond levels required to cover basic expenditure, while at the same time, in richer households women often have greater agency via access to broader networks as well as higher personal assets and incomes. Women are often overrepresented in low-paying jobs.
It will take another 132 years to close the global gender gap. Goldin, C., & Katz, L. F. (2016). This is the definition used by the ILO. In addition, the projected deepening of the current cost-of-living crisis is also likely to impact women more severely than men, as women continue to earn and accumulate wealth at lower levels. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Our World in Data is free and accessible for everyone. (1998). 1. This obviously circles back to our earlier point about social norms.20. The improvements are due to a slight increase since last year in the gender gap score of the United States of America as well as a stable score in Canada.
The Educational Attainment subindex also improved steadily towards parity, with step-changes in 2008 and 2015. You can explore these exceptions using the documentation files containing all the relevant indicator notes. Even when there is generous paid leave and subsidized childcare, as long as mothers disproportionately take additional work at home after having children, inequities in pay are likely to remain. Nevertheless, powerful as these strategies may be, they are only part of the solution. The results from this study are shown in the chart. The proportion of women is lower the higher you look up the income distribution. Flickr/David Stanley. the gap here captures differences between men and women in the middle of the earnings distribution); and they cover only full-time employees and self-employed workers (i.e. Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. And these are jobs with lower earnings per hour, even when the total number of hours worked is the same. It is closely followed by Europe, which has closed 76.6% of its gap. Gender gaps in leadership by industry: The share of women hired into leadership roles has seen a steady increase, from 33.3% in 2016 to 36.9% in 2022. The fact that women in rich countries are overrepresented in the bottom of the income distribution goes together with the fact that working women in these countries are overrepresented in low-paying occupations. However, the chart shows that the relationship is not really linear. Our World in Data presents the empirical evidence on global development in entries dedicated to specific topics. The chart here, from Blau and Kahn (2017) shows the evolution of the adjusted and unadjusted gender pay gap in the US.8, More precisely, the chart shows the evolution of female to male wage ratios in three different scenarios: (i) Unadjusted; (ii) Adjusted, controlling for gender differences in human capital, i.e. Here we show the share of firms that have a woman as manager. What makes women seek job flexibility and take a disproportionate amount of unpaid care work?
Over 45% of women dont have even $300 in savings, as Do men and married women have equal ownership rights to property? 
At this pace, it would take 152 years to close the regional gender gap. Licenses: All visualizations, data, and articles produced by Our World in Data are open access under the Creative Commons BY license. Olivetti, C., & Petrongolo, B. First, we see that the series trends upwards, meaning the gap has been shrinking in the last couple of decades. American Economic Review, 107(6), 1611-1637. By this measure, the gender wage gap is expressed as a percent (median earnings of women as share of median earnings of men) and it is always positive. Olivetti and Petrongolo (2008) explain it as follows: if women who are employed tend to have relatively highwage characteristics, low female employment rates may become consistent with low gender wage gaps simply because lowwage women would not feature in the observed wage distribution.2. One argument usually put forward is that, to the extent that biological differences in preferences and abilities underpin gender roles, they are the main factors explaining the gender pay gap. Women are more likely than men to be employed in professional and related occupations, according to a 2019 BLS report . gender wage gap in different countries. The gender pay gap is smaller in middle-income countries which tend to be countries with low labor force participation of women. What is the the picture on economic inequality in the aggregate? Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Source:
For example, as the chart shows, in nearly all low and middle-income countries with data, men are more likely to own land than women.
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